Converting Wavelength to Frequency of Light

This example problem demonstrates how to find the frequency of light from the wavelength. Wavelength is the distance or length between the peaks, troughs, or other fixed points on a wave. Frequency is the rate at which successive peaks, valleys, or points pass per second. Wavelength to Frequency Problem The Aurora Borealis is a night display in the Northern latitudes caused by ionizing radiation interacting with the Earths magnetic field and the upper atmosphere. The distinctive green color is caused by the interaction of the radiation with oxygen and has a wavelength of 5577 Ã…. What is the frequency of this light? Solution The speed of light, c, is equal to the product of the wavelength, ÃŽ », and the frequency, ÃŽ ½.ThereforeÃŽ ½ c/ÃŽ »ÃŽ ½ 3 x 108 m/sec/(5577 Ã… x 10-10 m/1 Ã…)ÃŽ ½ 3 x 108 m/sec/(5.577 x 10-7ÃŽ ½ 5.38 x 1014 Hz Answer: The frequency of the 5577 Ã… light is ÃŽ ½ 5.38 x 1014 Hz.

The Portrayal of Portia in William Shakespeares The...

The Portrayal of Portia in William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice In the merchant of Venice, Shakespeare portrays Portia to be a person of mixed characters, her attitude and mood seems to change with every scene. However, she is always seen by us as being pleasant and polite. Shakespeare portrays Portia’s character through other characters as well as directly, Nerissa is used almost as a comparison to which we can judge Portia, and by observing other character’s references to her, we can also build up a more detailed mage of her personality. Portia is first introduced to us by Shakespeare in Scene 2, This scene gives us a basic idea of her personality, and through her speeches, Shakespeare†¦show more content†¦But however keen to follow her fathers will, she is very blatantly judgemental, and she talks openly about how she remembers him favourably. Shakespeare often includes indirect compliments towards Portia through other characters, and nearing the end of this scene, Nerissa remarks, â€Å"True madam, he of all men that ever my foolish eyes looked upon, was the best deserving a fair lady†. The intelligence that Shakespeare adds to Portia’s character at the beginning of the play is again used nearing the end of the play, and although her character is consistently presented as witty by Shakespeare, this wittiness is presented in a far more prominent manner in this scene. This wit and ability to trick others is presented most strongly when she puts a twist on shylocks bond. First Shakespeare makes Portia lull Shylock into a false sense of security by ‘accepting’ that by law shylock is indeed entitled to the taking of 1 pound of Antonio’s flesh, and she then finds a loophole in the law by which not only to spare Antonio’s life, but also to criminalise shylock. This shows incredible wit and her ability to think on the spot and is shown by this paragraph; â€Å"Tarry a little, there is something else. This bond doth give thee here no jot ofShow MoreRelatedThe Merchant of Venice: Self-Interest versus Love Essay1016 Words   |  5 PagesWhile there are many fundamental themes in Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, only one seems to drive the play to its inevitable conclusion. There is a constant theme of self-interest versus love. On the surface, this seems to be the dividing factors between the Christians and the Jew. Shylock is portrayed to only care about money and profits, while the Christians are shown as people who value human relationships more. 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Foundational Psychology and Psychiatry

Question: Discuss about the Foundational Psychology and Psychiatry. Answer: Introduction The learning process in children differs on the basis of their age and development at that age. Child development is the process of emotional, physical, intellectual and social development as they grow up. The early years of a childs life are most critical to shape their intellectual development and thought pattern (Campbell et al., 2014). Learning at this stage has a direct impact on the minds of children and it is important for primary teachers to plan teaching strategies based on developmental needs of children at different stage of life (Charlesworth, 2013). With this context, the main purpose of this report is to analyze the case scenario of Jane, a primary school teacher in Singapore who is facing problem in managing children between 10-12 years in class and she wants to modify their behavior in class so that they engage in their class lessons and homework. The report analyzes the scenario by means of operant conditioning and proposes possible intervention to bring behavioral c hange in children. The thesis statement for the report is research on children between 10-12 years in Singapore and determining the suitability of the Operant Conditioning as an approach to behavioral change in this classroom. Evaluation of the scenario The report is on the case scenario of Jane, a primary school teacher teaching Primary 5 students. Since she had started teaching, she has observed that the children do not participate in class discussion and often stare blankly at her when she asks them questions. In this situation she is facing challenges in managing the class. The children are inattentive in class and they do not complete their assignment and home work very often. Jane is concerned that this form of lack of participation may defeat the purpose of teaching and therefore she wants to change and modify their behavior. To modify the behavior of this children between 10-12 years of age, it is necessary to analyze the behavior of this children and their typical class room behavior in Singapore. Considering the situation of primary education in Singapore, it can be said that primary schooling in Singapore begins at the age of six. The curriculum for primary education is classified into two stages- The foundation stage- for children in Primary 1 to Primary 4 The orientation stage- for children in primary 5 to 6 In the foundation stage, teachers in Singapore focus on basic learning skill of children such as English and Mathematics. In the orientation stage, the curriculum is decided basis of academic and language ability of children (Leeds.ac.uk 2016).To facilitate better learning and development in children, it is necessary for teachers to understand the class behavior typical of children between 10-12 years. The research on class room behavior of primary school children in Singapore reveals that teachers often face problem in class as children engage in disruptive conversation and its affects their learning in class. Many teachers also revealed that they found disrespecting teachers as the most unacceptable behavior of children. Children in primary class might engage in such behavior in class because they might be finding the lesson boring or their might mind be distracted by some ideas which they share with their classmates in the middle of class (Sun Shek, 2012). However, arguing back w ith teachers refers to the family and cultural values of this children. Teachers also reported observation of behaviors like non-attentiveness, failure in completing assignment and passive engagement in class in this age group. Some children engage in physical or verbal aggression in class, while some display non-verbal communication and eating/drinking in class (Peer Fraser, 2015). Another research tried to find the reason for takes-avoidant behavior and poor academic performance in primary school children. It gave the implication that such behaviorare influenced by developmental dynamics of school children in early years of life (Metspelto et al., 2015). Jane need to identify teaching strategy based on the development and learning needs of a child at this stage. The management of classroom behavior can be done by the use of operant conditioning theory which is based on the idea that a behavior can be modified by means of reward or punishment and it can be controlled by discriminatory stimuli (Henton Iversen, 2012).. In the case scenario of Jane, the lessons in class is the discriminatory stimuli and the behavior of children that needs to be changes is the problem of inattentive behavior and class room engagement in children between 10-12 years. To modify childrens behavior according to positive and negative enforcement, it is necessary to understand the social and cognitive development of children at this stage. Children between 10-12 years of age are at the stage of early adolescence when they are just beginning to cope with hormonal changes and getting influenced by the values and belief of their parents and friends (Edelstein, Keller, Schrder, 2014). According to Piagets theory of child development, the development of children between 10-12 years comes under concrete operational stage. According to Piaget, children in this stage start solving problem on the basis of concrete events. They can engage in inductive reasoning but they struggle in deductive reasoning (Modgil, Modgil, Brown, 2013).Therefore, in case of scenario of Jane, her children in class might be attentive because they may not be able to figure out the logic behind any lesson. Hence, to modify their behavior, Jane can apply operant conditioning technique to encourage positive learning behavior in children. By this approach, Jane can make children attentive in class by positive enforcement like rewards or giving lesson according to the mind set up of children at that stage. Jane can use the following techniques of operant conditioning in the classroom to engage children in class lessons and make them attentive: Use of positive enforcement to modify behavior of children- Children may bored by monotony is the class and their behavior of inattentiveness can be modified by Jane by bringing fun in class by ways of strategies like giving candies to children on right response to answer and appreciation or clap for those students who solves class lesson faster than others. This form of tactics will influence all children and they will automatically pay attention to class to get the rewards and benefits from their teachers. Hence, by means of positive enforcement, the children will repeat good behavior of they are rewarded (Ayers, Gray, 2013). Praising children in class can also act as a means of modifying students behavior and it will encourage other children to continuously improve their learning too. Praise can be given in class by means of clapping or cheering for the children in whole class. While asking any question to children, Jane can encourage children by means of expression like great answer or great effort and then explaining the right answer. By this technique, one child will be influenced by other classmates and they will also try their best to impress their teacher in next class or lesson (Evertson Weinstein, 2013). Use of this positive approach by Jane will helps her to nurture her students in class and facilitate learning development in them. In case of giving rewards, it is also necessary to keep in mind that any rewards should not be repeated. Children in early adolescence get bored from same attractions very soon and teachers should always try to bring some new mode of rewards to sustain the good behavior in children. The type of reward can be changes from time to time such as giving extra play time, stickers, special game tickets, certificate and position of responsibility to children. The frequency and level of awards can be modified by on the basis of severity of behavior in children (Collins Cook, 2016). Use of negative enforcement to eliminate bad behaviors in classroom- Jane can modify the habit of keeping quiet and staring in classroom by issuing sanctions or punishment for such behavior. In that case, children are less likely to repeat such behavior. A consistency between awards and punishment is necessary to sustain change and enable effective learning in children (Vancraeyveldt et al., 2015). However, in case of negative behavior, Jane must ensure that she does not spoil the relationship with children by heating or raising voice on children. The humanistic approach to teaching primary school children is to keep them motivate in class by showing empathy to children and delivering classroom lessons in enthusiastic and fun manner (Shokouhi, Limberg, Armstrong, 2014). In case of children who are still and stare at teacher, Jane can positively bring their attention back to lessons by supportive strategies like standing next to the child while giving instruction or telling the child directly to do any task in front of them. Such children may panic by this approach, however use of friendly attitude and empathetic expression can help the child overcome his or her shyness or anxiety in responding to lessons (Rapport, Kofler, Alderson, 2016). Evaluation of operant conditioning theory From the analysis of teaching strategy recommended for modifying classroom behavior of children between 10-12 years, it can be said that the principle of operant conditioning theory will help Jane to bring behavioral change in the primary 5 students. The use of positive enforcers like rewards, tokens and appreciation will enable effective learning in class by means of participation and engagement of children. There are four context of operant conditioning theory such as the positive and negative reinforcement, positive and negative punishment. Positive enforcement is used to bring positive behavior and all other are used to prevent negative behavior in individual. With this approach, children will easily get attracted to lessons and take part in class discussions too. On comparison of all learning and development theories, it can be said that Skinners operant conditioning is based on behaviorism approach while the Piaget and Vygotskys cognitive development theory is based on constructivism approach. The advantage of operant conditioning theory is that use of positive enforcement acts as source to motivate children to adopt good behavior. This theory will be useful in controlling certain behavior in children and promoting their interest in learning (Gazzaniga Heatherton, 2015).On the contrary, Piaget theory believes that development in children does not occur by means of positive and negative reinforcement, but also it is achieved through observation (Scholnick, 2013).Vygotsky explains cognitive development and learning in children is achieved through interaction with knowledgeable and intellectual member in the society (Lantolf et al., 2015). Hence, this concept of operational conditioning theory is different from other theories and it has the ma ximum possibility of modifying change in behavior of children. Kohlbergs theory was an extension of Piagets moral development theory which revealed that moral development in children can occur either negatively or positively through different stages in their life span. This is similar to operant conditioning theory as this theory also deals with behavior on the basis of good or behavior. However, one disadvantage of operant conditioning theory is that this theory is not always good because a child cannot be engaged in positive behavior continuously by means of reward. The reward may extinct after some time and childs good behavior should not always be dependent on rewards. Despite this weakness, operant conditioning technique is beneficial for the case scenario of Jane, because is Jane is willing to modify behavior of those children who have low level of thinking and learning. Use of operant conditioning approach will help such children to move from level of low learning to high thinking pattern and learning. Conclusion The detailed report based on analysis of case scenario of Jane, a primary school teacher summarizes the typical classroom behavior observed in children between 10-12 years and how operant conditioning approach can be a useful approach to modify the behavior in classroom. The explanation of techniques that can be used by Jane to encourage participation of children in class revealed that this can be achieved by modifying the teaching style and providing positive enforcers to students (Kaplan Patrick, 2016). The suitability of this theory in relation to the case scenario was accurately discussed by comparison with other development theory. Reference Ayers, H., Gray, F. (2013).Classroom management: a practical approach for primary and secondary teachers. Routledge. Campbell, F., Conti, G., Heckman, J. J., Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Pungello, E., Pan, Y. (2014). Early childhood investments substantially boost adult health.Science,343(6178), 1478-1485. Charlesworth, R. (2013).Understanding child development. Cengage Learning. Collins, L. W., Cook, L. (2016). Never Say Never: The Appropriate and Inappropriate Use of Praise and Feedback for Students with Learning and Behavioral Disabilities. InInstructional Practices with and without Empirical Validity(pp. 153-173). Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Edelstein, W., Keller, M., Schrder, E. (2014). Child development and social structure: A longitudinal study of individual differences.Paul B. Baltes/David L. Featherman/Richard M. Lerner: Life-span development and behavior. Bd,10, 151-185. Evertson, C. M., Weinstein, C. S. (Eds.). (2013).Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues. Routledge. Gazzaniga, M., Heatherton, T. (2015).Psychological Science: Fifth International Student Edition. WW Norton Company. Henton, W. W., Iversen, I. H. (2012).Classical conditioning and operant conditioning: A response pattern analysis. Springer Science Business Media. Kaplan, A., Patrick, H. (2016). Learning Environments and Motivation.Handbook of Motivation at School, 251. Lantolf, J. P., Thorne, S. L., Poehner, M. E. (2015). Sociocultural theory and second language development.Theories in second language acquisition: An introduction, 207-226. Leeds.ac.uk. (2016).A Survey of Classroom Practices in Singapore - Preliminary Findings. [online] Available at: https://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/000000327.htm [Accessed 22 Dec. 2016]. Metspelto, R. L., Pakarinen, E., Kiuru, N., Poikkeus, A. M., Lerkkanen, M. K., Nurmi, J. E. (2015). Developmental dynamics between childrens externalizing problems, task-avoidant behavior, and academic performance in early school years: A 4-year follow-up.Journal of Educational Psychology,107(1), 246. Modgil, S., Modgil, C., Brown, G. (Eds.). (2013).Jean Piaget. Routledge. Peer, J., Fraser, B. J. (2015). Sex, grade-level and stream differences in learning environment and attitudes to science in Singapore primary schools.Learning Environments Research,18(1), 143-161. Rapport, M., Kofler, M., Alderson, R. (2016). Quantifying ADHD classroom inattentiveness, its moderators, and variability.Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines,49(1). Scholnick, E. K. (Ed.). (2013).New trends in conceptual representation: Challenges to Piaget's theory. Psychology Press. Shokouhi, A. M., Limberg, D., Armstrong, S. A. (2014). Counseling preadolescents: Utilizing developmental cues to guide therapeutic approaches.International Journal of Play Therapy,23(4), 217. Sun, R. C., Shek, D. T. (2012). Student classroom misbehavior: an exploratory study based on teachers' perceptions.The Scientific World Journal,2012. Vancraeyveldt, C., Verschueren, K., Wouters, S., Van Craeyevelt, S., Van den Noortgate, W., Colpin, H. (2015). Improving teacher-child relationship quality and teacher-rated behavioral adjustment amongst externalizing preschoolers: Effects of a two-component intervention.Journal of abnormal child psychology,43(2), 243-257.

Ethics And Professional Practice Assignment- Free Sample

Abstract The dynamics of the business and the environment has changed in last decade. There have been cases where the attention has been drawn on the scandals, and issues in the governance due to unethical behaviour of the employees. The idea behind this research paper is to draw the attention on the modes in which the ethics of the employees can be measured and governed. The research takes into consideration the myths associated with the ethics and the management and leadership to govern the culture. The research recommends proactive approach by the leaders for the issues. Introduction There have been numerous instances in the twenty first century that has resulted in the losses expanding to millions due to the unethical behaviour of the employees. These problems have again made the researchers think about the issues related to ethics and the behaviour of the employees coupled with the responses of managers to deal with these problems (Robinson Bennett, 2000 pg 351). The research paper discusses about the research paper of Trevino and Nelson (2014 pg 14) about bad apples, and the identification of these bad apples for the betterment of the organization. However the study will also take into account the fact whether the removal of the employee is the right approach or some more can be done to eradicate this problem (Robinson Bennett, 2000 pg 353). There have been some elements and the factors that are associated from being ethical and that will be discussed in the course of this essay. Organizational Culture Creating Pressure One of the most critical elements of the ethical or non ethical behaviour is the pressure that is built by the organizations and its culture at large. There are pressures on the work environment that results in the decisions to be taken for the benefit of the organization and increasing its profitability. However ignoring the organizational context in being ethical is not right. There will always be pressures from the organization that will force a person to behave in a unethical manner (Jones, 2009 pg 533). Though identification of these improper behaviours is a must, it is not wise to say that the only problem that is created in the organization is by the employees. It has been noted in various researches that sometimes doing the right thing as per the leaders and bosses perceptions may result in the unethical behaviour from individuals end (Acquino, et al. 1999 pg 1088). In some cases the pressure to perform is to much a lure for the people to behave unethically. Unethical Behaviour and Bad Apples The theory of bad apples suggests that the unethical behaviour is the factor that is due to the bad apples. Removal of these bad apples causes the removal of the problems of the organization. The idea behind this theory was that the removal of bad apples causes the removal of the organizational problems and the leader will be able to clean it (Trevino et al.2003, p. 35). The debate has been whether the removal of the bad apples results in the ending of the problems and the issues of the ethics that are there in the organization. However, it has been noted that this is not the case, as there are always external environment that act as the barrier for the ethical behaviour. Therefore to blame the employees for the problems is not the right way to looking at things (Trevino et al. 1999 p. 150). Ethical Leadership Components An appropriate conduct for inducing ethical behaviour is required in the case of the organization. The role of the ethical leader is to create the code of conduct for the employees and creating effective communication. The reinforcement of the codes and conducts is also required so that the two way decision making is done (Brown et al. 2000 p.120). It is important for the leader to be ethical himself and the people should view the leader as being honest, and a person who can be trusted. Van den Akker et al. (2009) mentioned that the ethical leader is one who is able to lead by example and set the bars of ethics higher. He should make the employees follow. The people should be able to change there working and ethics so that the bad apples are turned good (Dalal, 2005 pg 1252). It is important that the leader is able to judge the misbehaviour that can hurt the organizational objectives (Vardi Wiener, 1996 pg 155). The basic factor in the organizational judgement that included the find ing of the bad apples that are responsible for the dent in the ethics, is also to find the route cause for the issues. Kalshoven et al. (2011) that the leader should be ethical in finding these causes that is helpful for the change in work behaviour in the positive manner. The stimulation for the unethical work is reduced if the leader is ethical and tries and tries and create effective communication to reduce theproblems. (Mayer et al. 2009, pg 12). There have been experiments that have found that the problem with the ethical standards and meeting is sometimes created by the leader himself (Lasthuizen, 2008). In some cases the people do not know that the work they are doing is unethical in nature and therefore causes the organization to suffer (Milgram 1974). The experiments by Milgram (1974) showed that the in case of some authoritative figure giving instruction to the employees to act in a unethical manner, chances were that the instruction was followed by the individual. The researches have shown that there is a definite level of discomfort in some cases that was caused of wrong doings in a pressure (Hogg et al. 2004 p.251). Conclusion The study clearly indicates that several factors are included in the person to behave unethically in the organization. The discussion of the employees and their behaviour to cheat or act in a unethical manner is sometimes governed by the culture of that organization. The employee acts and works in a manner in which its environment asks for. Therefore the onus is on various factors rather than only on the problems related to the employees being unethical. In order to curb the situations and causes of the unethical behaviour, it is important that the leader is ethical himself and trustworthy. He should be able to communicate with the employees and set the code of conduct for them, which should also be implemented in a time based manner. The role of the leader is therefore critical and he should be able to judge and correct the behaviours of the employees. The study also highlighted that the pressure on the employees the leader should be ethical in finding these causes that is helpful for the change in work behaviour in the positive manner. The stimulation for the unethical work is reduced if the leader is ethical and tries and tries and create effective communication to reduce the problems (Mayer et al. 2009, pg 12). There have been experiments that have found that the problem with the ethical standards and meeting is sometimes created by the leader himself (Lasthuizen, 2008). In some cases the people do not know that the work they are doing is unethical in nature and therefore causes the organization to suffer (Milgram 1974). The experiments by Milgram (1974) showed that the in case of some authoritative figure giving instruction to the employees to act in a unethical manner, chances were that the instruction was f ollowed by the individual. The researches have shown that there is a definite level of discomfort in some cases that was caused of wrong doings in a pressure (Hogg et al. 2004 p. 251).

Kgb History free essay sample

Several of the greatest and most terrible leaders of the Soviet Union were brought up through the ranks of the KGB and its predecessors: Beria, Andropov, and Yeltsin were all proteges of the KGB. The KGB infiltrated straight into the heart of the American and British establishments; the KGB ran the most infamous spy ring in the history of espionage . The KGB supervised many invasions of the Middle East and Eastern Europe. The KGB crest – the sword and the shield – is to show what the KGB stands for; defense, espionage, and attack. The KGB has affected both the culture and the government of Russia in several ways. Soviet Security Services 1907-1991 The Soviet Security services varied much through out the years and were both the most feared and most powerful government agencies that the Union ever saw. The responsibilities of the Services varied from being responsible for propaganda to controlling Siberian labor camps. We will write a custom essay sample on Kgb History or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Contrary to popular belief there were seven different services, not just the one KGB that is commonly referred to as the single Soviet security service. The VeCheka was Vladimir Lenin’s device for keeping his newly founded country together. It was founded on the 20th of December in 1917, right at the beginning of the Soviet Union. The USSR was in a tenuous place after the revolution of 1917 and Lenin, with the help of Dzerzhinsky, founded the All-Russian Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage or the VeCheka in Russian. The Cheka was used to capture former Czar officials who were on the run and could possibly spring a new revolution to bring back the exiled czar1 and try to control the country. The Cheka began the organization of a spy program that would last for almost a century and recruit more spies than any other agency in the history of the world. The legacy of the VeCheka still remains, as the secret policemen during Soviet times were referred to as â€Å"Chekists† and the secret policemen in Russia today are still referred to as â€Å"Chekists†, as they were called while the VeCheka still existed. The VeCheka was replaced by the GPU in 1922 to present a fresh face for the Secret Police and a new look for the Politburo. The GPU was created as that the current security service would not a bad image, the Cheka had been rather hated and feared by the people of the USSR, and it had slightly different duties than the VeCheka. The GPU, â€Å"State Political Directorate† in English, was used also for the security of the borders of the Soviet Union as well as controlling new unions that â€Å"joined†. The GPU lasted only one year before it gained such a bad reputation about the purges and labor camps that it was disbanded in 1923 and replaced by the OGPU. The OGPU was the first security service that prosecuted religion and freedom of speech. It was founded in 1923 to enhance the power of the service as well as give it a fresh face. The OGPU worked to abolish the Russian Orthodox Church, one of the most extreme branches of Catholicism. It nearly succeeded however secret meetings were still held underground and in far off regions where the government was not strong. The largest and quite possibly most successful operation by the OGPU was called the â€Å"Trust Operation†. The Trust Operation was used to make money for the USSR, lure exiled Russians to Moscow, and worked as propaganda machine after being disbanded in 1924. The idea of the operation was to have a group, â€Å"The Trust†, working in western countries pretending to be an anti-communist group ready to stage a rebellion; from there they would both recruit members and get money from western intelligence agencies and anti-Soviet persons. Once members were â€Å"recruited† they would be told to go to Moscow and from there they would be placed under arrest in Lubyanka and often murdered to make sure that they kept quiet. This operation was ruined when Sidney Reilly, a Russian-born British intelligence officer who was one of the leading anti-Soviet forces in the west, was lured to and murdered in Moscow. After this, the venture became a purely propaganda based job because British and American governments were becoming aware of the fact. The time of the OGPU and GPU was when the most public purges were done and the most hated leaders were seen. The government realized that all these murders were hurting their idealist image, so in late 1934, the secret police became part of the NKVD . The NKVD presented a more polite scaled back view to the secret service with less public purges and more just spying upon the Soviet people. While this may have looked like a nicer more people oriented service, in actuality it was merely more propaganda. The service was actually murdering only a small fraction less of people and it was spying on the people more. The West was not aware of these facts and looked upon it as an improvement to the USSR. It was during these times that the NKVD recruited the most western spies such as the â€Å"Cambridge Five spy ring†, Aldrich Ames and Robert Hanssen in the CIA, and Klaus Fuchs, the spy in the Manhattan Project. In 1945, the NKVD split its secret service portion in two, forming the NKGB and the NKVD. The NKVD was responsible for border guarding and propaganda, and the NKGB worked against western countries, fought sabotage, terrorism and counterespionage, and provided bodyguards for the Bolshevik officials. Again, this was more of a housekeeping issue, to make the world think better of the Soviet Secret Service and Moscow as a whole, not so much an actual change of duties, the government agencies at that time, world war two just ending and the cold war beginning. In 1946, Lavrenty Beria made the NKVD and the NKGB into ministries, making them the MGB and MVD. Although the agencies bore different names than before, they still had the same jobs but were represented in the Politburo with a minister apiece. In 1953, at the end of his term, Beria merged the two into the MGB. This was his last major act before being thrown out. In the same year the agency lost its government representation and became the Committee for State Security, or the infamous KGB. The KGB was the most famous Soviet secret service and many people still believe that it exists. The KGB was responsible for some of the worst attacks, from the 1950’s onward, against the United States, the United Kingdom, and eastern European/Middle East countries such as Afghanistan, Macedonia, and Pakistan. It was during the time of the KGB that the most agents attempted to defect to the West and only two survived for more than two years after defecting. The KGB effectively controlled the entirety of the USSR, the largest country ever in modern times. The Leaders The leaders of the KGB have been some of the most influential men in Soviet history. Some ascended to the ranks of leader of the Bolsheviks, others have been killed beneath the KGB headquarters at â€Å"Lubyanka†. Either way, they have all gone on to great and/or terrible deeds, some have been put down as almost saints by the Soviets and others have been instrumental in the downfall of the Soviets. Leaders such as Felix Dzerzhinsky were incredibly helpful to the USSR in the Russian Revolution and then created the VeCheka , others such as Lavrenty Beria were seen as potential rivals to leaders of the USSR and were murdered beneath where their own feet had tread in the haunted prison of Lubyanka. Felix Dzerzhinsky was the first of the leaders of the KGB, or, as it was called at that point, the Vecheka. Dzerzhinsky was both a powerful leader of the Vecheka and an important Bolshevik politician. He was instrumental in the creation of the USSR and in helping the new country survive during German attacks. Born into a noble polish family in the late 1800’s, as soon as he was schooled he was against all class differences and became an avid reader of Karl Marx . During the Russian Revolution he was forced to fight on the side of the Polish, but when given the opportunity he quickly defected to Leningrad (St. Petersburg or Petrograd) where he met Vladimir Lenin and quickly established himself as his right-hand man. When Lenin returned from his second exile and took over Russia, Dzerzhinsky quickly created the â€Å"All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution and Sabotage†. He worked this into Soviet politics and became known and feared through out the Soviet Union. During his time in the Secret Service, he went throughout the USSR and worked against all anti-communists and religious eople. That said, he was still probably one of the most peaceful of the secret service leaders. After Lenin died and Stalin took over, Dzerzhinsky was appointed as Head of Soviet Economics on the 24th of February, 1924, even though Dzerzhinsky was against Stalin’s appointment as president of the USSR. However, Stalin merely used this as an opportunity to remove Dzerzhinsky from the secret service. Dzerzhinsky spent the rest of his life devoted to making the economics of the USSR better. Sadly, his life only lasted three more years, and he died in 1926. While he may no longer be around, the FSB has a constant reminder that he started their organization as they are housed in Dzerzhinsky Square, Moscow, the leaders are reminded each day of where there organization spawned. After Dzerzhinsky was forced off the force, a new face was brought in. Vyacheslav Menzhinsky was appointed to lead the force. Menzhinsky was another Pole who had taken it upon himself to make the Czarist regime fall. He went so far as to get himself arrested by the Czars in 1906 on â€Å"Civil Disobedience† charges. He was appointed as head of the OGPU in 1926. However, he only lasted eight years before falling out of favor with Stalin and having to flee. He fled to Switzerland, France and the United States before he was finally caught by his own former agency and found, in what appeared to be a â€Å"suicide†, in his hotel room. Replacing Menzhinsky was his own deputy, Genrikh Grigoryevich Yagoda, yet another Pole leading the Soviet Secret Service. Yagoda was born in Lodz, Poland at the height of the Russian Empire in 1891. Yagoda joined the Bolshevik party right at the beginning in 1907 as a member of the Leningrad chapter. Yagoda quickly rose through the ranks in the Bolsheviks and was appointed to the VeCheka in 1920 by Dzerzhinsky. He became the deputy head of the OGPU in 1924 and was stationed there for 10 years. During that time, he was appointed as the head of the Siberian labor camps. In 1934, Yagoda finally was raised to the position he had been striving for since he entered the VeCheka, the elusive Headship. During his time at the top, he started the first widespread and public purge trials, these trials were used to â€Å"purge† political enemies from the Soviet Union. Yagoda did not last long as the leader of the OGPU. He fell out of favor with Stalin in 1936 and was replaced. However, Stalin was not content with merely removing him from his post in the OGPU, and in 1937 he was arrested by his own former organization. During the third of the â€Å"Great Purges†, Yagoda was tried and convicted of being part of the â€Å"Trotskyite† conspiracy and was executed on the 15th of March, 1938 underneath the headquarters of the NKVD at Lubyanka , Moscow. Immediately following Yagoda was Nikolay Yezhov an underling in the NKVD and the man responsible for purging Yagoda. Yezhov was born in Petrograd in 1895. He joined the Red Army in 1905 and fought in the 1907 revolution. He joined the Bolshevik party in Leningrad in 1917 and quickly rose through the ranks. He was appointed to the post of â€Å"Head of Soviet Security† on the 26th September, 1936, and became feared through out the Soviet Union as the most ruthless leader of the secret police yet. He was responsible for the â€Å"Great Purge† and began to purge all of the staff that could potentially be harmful, to him including his predecessor and the war minister of the USSR. He was known throughout the USSR as â€Å"The Bloody Dwarf†; Yezhov was less than five feet tall, as well as being diagnosed with Napoleon Complex at age five. Stalin was not happy with his work after one year and he [Stalin] was encouraged by Molotov to purge Yezhov. During 1937, Stalin gave Yezhov chances to regain favor but Stalin was not impressed by the way Yezhov handled himself without support and he was worried about potential threats to his power. In August of 1938, Lavrenty Beria, Yezhov’s deputy whom he though was his closest ally, took over control of the NKVD in what would become a long and owerful reign. On the 25th of November, 1938, Yezhov was officially removed from his post and exiled to Stalingrad. After two years of exile, Yezhov was still viewed as a possible threat to Stalin and he was arrested in 1940 and purged in the cell adjoining to his predecessor’s cell. Born in 1899 in Georgia, Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria joined the Communist Party at t he very beginning of the Russian Revolution. Between 1917 and 1925, Beria led the Georgian chapter of the VeCheka in a very similar way to Dzerzhinsky. In 1926, he was transferred to Moscow to work as a deputy in OGPU.

Standardized Testing vs Portfolio Assessment

Standardized Testing vs Portfolio Assessment Free Online Research Papers Portfolios and standardized testing are two ways of assessing individual progress. Portfolios can be used to assess students on an individual basis, but this type of assessment may be difficult to use to compare one student to another. To make it standardized across large groups of people in a meaningful way could be too subjective. Standardized tests like ACT and SAT are generally better at comparing one student to another because they minimize the subjectivity. Standardized testing can be used as a system to assess students from different schools. Different methods of assessing students are useful in a variety of settings and for an assortment of purposes. David Boyanton (2009) and a group of educators conducted a study to determine if the emotions felt by a student could affect the outcome of the student’s learning. Although emotion usually is not considered in assessing learning, this study showed that emotion played a significant role in the learning process. Emotions are used during the procedure of learning, and as a result of learning. â€Å"When a student is truly engaged in learning, he will naturally produce some emotion during or at the end of the class. Further, this emotional involvement does not have to be always positive. Rather, it can be either positive or negative† (Boyanton, 2009, p. 67). The study encompassed a type of learning system that students engaged in. The students were then assessed using portfolios based upon this system, known as CES. â€Å"CES proposes that student learning can be inferred through three student characteristics: cognitive continuity, emotional involvement, and social harm ony† (Boyanton, 2009, p.69). Most students engage in conversations or communicate with each other outside of the classroom. Cognitive continuity refers to this type of interaction. A display of strong emotion, either negative or positive, incorporates the emotional involvement component. Social develops when students feel a sense of belonging and the students feel a connection to each other (Boyanton, 2009). According to the study, these three characteristics are reliable indicators of classroom learning. Traditional assessments judge the students’ performance by comparing them to others (norm-referenced testing) or by criterion-referenced testing which uses certain standards (Boyanton, 2009). CES examines learning on an individual level by observing changes made by each student. These changes are compared and assessed to determine growth. The CES model evaluates student learning inside of the classroom as well as behavior outside the classroom (Boyanton, 2009). Learning takes on many forms and constantly changes. The perspective of an individual differs from one person to the next. Common learning assessment tools generally look at learning as stable and within a whole group. CES takes the approach to learning as a changing, individualized, and building experience (Boyanton, 2009). â€Å"CES was to provide a model for instructors to determine how well the students have learned, it does not indicate what the students have learned, how much they have learned, or how wel l they are able to apply what they have learned† (Boyanton, 2009, p. 70). Furthermore, CES does not consider whether the knowledge will be retained, whether student behavior will be influenced or whether students will be able to generalize the information they learned (Boyanton, 2009). Motivation can be a powerful emotion as related to learning. The relationship between student’s motivation to read and their performance on standardized testing is one factor to consider in assessment (Mucherah, 2008). Students who are motivated in some way to read at school or at home, often score higher on certain standardized tests (Mucherah, 2008). â€Å"Students who had high self-efficacy in reading, enjoyed reading challenging material, and who enjoyed reading different kinds of literary material [are the ones who] performed better†(Mucherah, 2008, p. 229). However, those who were motivated to read more for social reasons did not do as well on the test. Mucherah (2008) points out that reading motivation itself does not necessarily predict performance on a standardized test in reading. While reading for personal interest does not improve performance on standardized tests, reading challenging materials and different types of books does have a positive effect on reading tests (Mucherah, 2008). Even though motivation to read might increase achievement, students should not always be rewarded for reading. Teachers may want to increase intrinsic motivation by varying the ways students are rewarded. â€Å"Further understanding of middle school students’ reading motivation will contribute to the design of classroom and school contexts that expand and strengthen readers’ intrinsic reading motivation and the benefits it provides† (Mucherah, 2008, p. 230). Some critics believe there are several faults with standardized testing. Often these tests mainly assess â€Å"rote memorization and dead facts† (Eisner, 1999, p. 568). Eisner believes that it can be difficult for standardized tests to assess a student’s ability to think critically or problem solve. This type of testing only tells how well the students can store and retrieve information, but not apply the information to different settings (Eisner, 1999). Because of these limitations, a learning assessment model based on learning experiences and projects in the classroom may reflect a more individualized assessment. Other critics of criterion referenced testing, such as Dr. Douglas Reeves, believe that such testing can be detrimental. During the assessment and evaluation symposium Dr. Reeves delivered a presentation titled, â€Å"Toxic Grading Practices.† In the presentation, he described how zeros, big final exam, and using an average for a final grade are harmful to students. Dr. Reeves (2008) strongly advocated teachers to make students accountable by making them complete the assignment rather than giving a zero for the missed work. Jay McClain, principal at Bailey’s Elementary School in Fairfax County, Virginia has similar opinions. In a podcast on PBS.org he explained, â€Å"Data is dangerous if it’s not data that is built on what you feel is important to look at† (2008). When students take a test and you get the results back later, it does not help the teacher to go back and retest. The education reform bill known as No Child Left Behind (NCLB), has int ensified accountability for teachers. The focus should be on the whole child rather than on what the child has been taught. McClain believes that NCLB is too restrictive and does not allow for individual expression (Renaud, 2006). Throughout history, there have been many different ways to educate students. Progressive Education philosophers include John Dewey and William Heard Kilpatrick (Gutek, 2009). Both Dewey and Kilpatrick believed that education should be more than textbooks. Students should be engaged in learning and teachers should consider different aspects of the individual child. Kilpatrick was a strong advocate for a project-based learning environment. Students had hands-on opportunities and developed important skills such as cooperation and analytical thinking (Gutek, 2009). The teaching method developed by John Dewey incorporated some similar concepts. Dewey believed that students learned best through the scientific method and experiences within their environment (Gutek, 2009). Both philosophers seem to embrace a portfolio type of assessment that would more accurately reflect individual learning. Because progressive education ideas center on being engaged, portfolio assessment would clos ely fit with these ideals. Accountability has become an increasingly integral part of education. Most states in the United States embrace a system of accountability for teachers and schools. As the accountability system increases, standardized and norm-referenced testing seems to be the assessments of choice for data collection. This method is generally better for collecting data that compares one student to another or one school to another. Many aspect of education are tied to the results of testing. Funding for schools and teacher salary is often a large component of the data results. Freedom of expression and individualism appear to be lost when schools embrace numerical growth rather than student growth. Each assessment method has a purpose and a specific use. Finding the right balance can be difficult, but is important in order to accurately reflect progress and individual growth. References Boyanton, D. (2009, March). How Do You Know They Are Learning: Introducing the CES Classroom Learning Assessment Model. International Journal of Learning, 15(12), 67- 77. Retrieved June 30, 2009, from Education Research Complete database. Eisner, E. W. (1999). The uses and limits of performance assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(9), 658-660. Retrieved June 30, 2009, from Education Research Complete database. Gutek, G. (2009). New Perspectives on Philosophy and Education., New Jersey: Pearson Education. Mucherah, W., Yoder, A. (2008, May). Motivation for Reading and Middle School Students Performance on Standardized Testing in Reading. Reading Psychology, 29(3), 214-235. Retrieved July 1, 2009, doi:10.1080/02702710801982159 Reeves. D. (2008, Jan.). Toxic Grading Practices. retrieved June 30, 2009 from teachertube.com/members Renaud, J., Merrow, J. (producers). (2006, Oct.). Daily, Weekly, Monthly. Podcast retrieved June 30, 2009 from pbs.org/merrow/rss/media/88.mp3. Research Papers on Standardized Testing vs Portfolio AssessmentStandardized TestingThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseResearch Process Part OneIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalThree Concepts of PsychodynamicArguments for Physician-Assisted Suicide (PAS)Assess the importance of Nationalism 1815-1850 EuropeEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married Males

The Individual and the State Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Individual and the State - Essay Example In toerh ways, citizens give up some freedoms in return for the state guaranteeing much larger freedoms such as the right to live safely and to own personal property without it being stolen. Within this context, it would appear that "civil disobedience" would not be allowed. For civil disobedience would not bow to the general will, it would be an expression of natural right. This is only the case when the government of a country genuinely adheres to the general will, and when the social contract is being honored. Thus if a despotic ruler takes control, or if the citizens start to tyrannize their fellow people, then disobedience would be in order. This seems a sensible point of view. Most of the most advanced countries of the world adhere to the idea of the social contract, and thus civil disobedience is not needed. However, when the laws are demonstrably unjust (such as race laws in the American South in the 1950's) then a degree of "civil disobedience" (such as Rosa Parks) is legitimate. Rousseau would support such actions. In The Death of Socrates David portrays the last seconds in the life of Socrates, who had been condemned to death by the Athenian state for corrupting the morals of young men by his teaching methods. These teaching methods essentially enabled them to think for themselves and to question the logic of authority through the Socratic method of questioning. The main feature of the painting is the contrast between the powerful-looking, animated and yet controlled Socrates who is about to drink the hemlock with those of the young men surrounding him who seem miserable in their inability to accept the situation. Formally, Socrates is placed just to the right of center of the picture, and has a kind of light exuding from him. This makes him the most powerful figure in the painting. In contrast, his disciples are painted in a darker manner, and they are looking away from the figure of Socrates, even as one of the young men is handing him the hemlock. In this situation David is suggesting that the individual must stand up for what he believes in against the forces of the state. The masses are represented by the apparent anger of the old man looking at Socrates on the right. Two young men look at him like timid animals, while an old man sits at the end of the bed, apparently impotent to do anything. It is only Socrates who is facing the reality of the situation, as an individual must if he is to take on the state. c)What areas of shared concern can you identify between Rousseau's argument in The Social Contract and David in The Death of Socrates One major area of shared concern is what the individual should do when he/she is about to take on the state. Thus within The Social Contract the individual should in nearly all cases give up the "natural right" for the good of the whole mass of people. Essentially Socrates has demanded his freedom to assert his natural right through teaching the young men of Athens as he sees fit, rather as the state sees fit. The background to the scene in the painting is that Socrates has in fact refused to escape his death sentence, but rather voluntarily drinks the